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BRIEFING…
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BRIEFING
Transportation Association of Canada Association des transports du Canada July 2004
URBAN TRANSPORTATION AND AIR QUALITY
In 1993, the TAC Urban Transportation Council published a Briefing entitled A NEW VISION FOR URBAN TRANS-
PORTATION. This Briefing proposes a 30-year generic vision for Canadian urban areas that can be tailored to fit to
local conditions. The vision is supported by 13 decision-making principles that point the way to a more desirable
future1. (Superscript numbers refer to endnotes on Page 8.) The vision calls for significant change from past practices
in respect to land use, the role of private automobiles, and transportation funding.
Since the publication of A NEW VISION FOR URBAN TRANSPORTATION, TAC has developed several Briefings that
elaborate this document's specific recommendations. This Briefing addresses, in part, the twelfth of the decision-
making principles: "Ensure that urban transportation decisions protect and enhance the environment". Urban transpor-
tation and its impacts on air quality are issues that transcend political boundaries and require public and private
cooperation to secure significant improvement.
AIR QUALITY IS A MAJOR URBAN ISSUE...
Introduction tion through an `air quality lens' and suggests ways to
reduce or eliminate components that lead to poor air qual-
During the last 50 years, Canada's urban areas have grown ity.
considerably in population and, even more, in size. Em-
ployment opportunities, immigration, and economic de- Elected officials at all orders of government as well as
velopment have all contributed to an increased concen- representatives of business and non-government organi-
tration of activity in urban areas. Now, 80% of Canadians zations can bring about change by incorporating air-qual-
work and live in communities with a population of more ity considerations in their decision-making processes.
than 10,000 people.
The growth in urban areas has numerous social, eco- Ground-level ozone (Average peak concentration at
nomic and environmental benefits, but it is not without monitoring stations in Canada, in parts per million)
problems, one of which is poor air quality. Unlike other
urban problems such as vehicle collisions, noise and traf- 130
Ontario, Quebec, Atlantic
fic congestion, the impacts of poor air quality are often 110 Western provinces
difficult to grasp. Yet, as in the case of these other is- 90
sues, poor air quality has significant social, economic,
and environmental impacts. 70
50
The Need for a Briefing Level of Canada-wide standard*
30
When air quality becomes a matter for public discus-
sion, the role of transportation is inevitably raised. Some 10
types of urban transportation are seen as worsening the 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
problem while others are identified as more positive. In
addition to raising the awareness and understanding of Source: Environment Canada, Canada's National Environmental
Indicators Series 2003 - Urban Air Quality
air quality issues, this Briefing looks at urban transporta-
Urban Transportation Council
1 Conseil des transports urbains
AIR POLLUTION HAS A DIRECT EFFECT ON THE HEALTH OF CANADIANS...
Effects of Air Quality
"The are strong links between air pollution and health
The effects of air emissions are well documented. They problems, especially for the elderly, children and for
include climate change, air pollution, and smog, with re- those with respiratory and cardiac problems. A large
sulting acid rain, loss of agricultural productivity, reduced number of studies, including some from the Govern-
visibility, and human health effects. Air quality has been ment of Canada, the Ontario Medical Association and
a concern in urban areas for more than a century. The the Toronto Public Health Department show that air
impacts of air pollution on human health include eye, pollution can lead to premature death, increased hos-
nose, and throat irritation, reduced lung capacity, aggra- pital admissions, more emergency room visits and
vation of respiratory diseases, cancer, and premature higher rates of absenteeism."
death. Source: Environment Canada Website www.ec.gc.ca/air
The impacts of air emissions vary significantly by the
type of pollutant. At the broad level, air emissions are
generally classified into two categories. One includes In recent years, particulate matter has received in-
emissions that have globally acting impacts. The most creased attention because of its severe and lasting im-
important of these cause global warming and other pacts on human health, particularly in children and the
changes in climate and are often referred to as Green- elderly. Fine particulates (PM2.5) in tailpipe emissions
house Gas Emissions (GHGs). The other category of contribute to breathing problems and lung damage while
emissions includes those that have locally acting im- larger particulates (PM10), generated from road dust and
pacts, notably poor urban air quality. Emissions contrib- tire wear, are responsible for reduced visibility, degrada-
uting to poor air quality are often referred to as Criteria tion of materials, and impacts to vegetation.
Air Contaminants (CACs). They include Total Particu- The focus of this Briefing is on air emissions as they
late Matter (TPM), Particulate Matter with a diameter less pertain to urban air quality. The issues of global warming
than 10 microns (PM10), Particulate Matter with a diam- and the reduction of GHGs have been addressed in previ-
eter less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5), Carbon Monoxide (CO), ous TAC briefings (see A PRIMER ON URBAN TRANS-
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Sulphur Oxides SOx, and Volatile PORTATION AND GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE, May
Organic Compounds (VOCs). 1998), and in numerous reports prepared as part of
Canada's National Climate Change Process.
Major Impacts on Human Health and the Environment of Common Pollutants Associated with Vehicle Use
Emissions Health impacts Environmental impacts
Nitrogen oxides (NOX) include nitric · NO2 is a lung irritant at high concen- · NO2 reacts with water to form nitric acid
oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), trations, may lead to depression of the (HNO3), an element of acid rain.
which is formed from the oxidation of NO. immune system, with children and the · NO2 contributes to the formation of ground-
elderly being at risk. level ozone, is associated with suppressed
vegetation growth andcontributes to the
corrosion of metals and degradation of
various materials.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a gas produced · Reduces the ability of the blood to carry · CO may contribute to the formation of
by the incomplete combustion of organic oxygen. ground-level ozone.
materials.
Volatile Organic compounds (VOCs) · Many individual VOCs (e.g., benzene) are · Contributes to the formation of ground-level
are a chemically diverse group of known to have or are suspected of having ozone.
compounds that have at least one human health effects ranging from
carbon atom. carcinogenicity to neurotoxicity.
Ozone (O3) is formed from the reaction · Associated with changes in lung function, · Reduces agricultural productivity and the
of NOX, VOCs, and sunlight. decreased immune function, and possibly growth rate of trees.
the development of chronic lung disease.
Particulate Matter (PM10) is produced · Associated with Increased respiratory · PM deposition on vegetation reduces photo-
from road dust and tire wear. infections, reduced breathing capacity, synthesis; it also contributes to degradation
and potentially cancer. of materials and reduced visibility.
Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) is · Can cause breathing and respiratory · Not yet well investigated, but likely to be
produced from direct tailpipe emissions symptoms, irritation, inflammation and found to cause health impacts in several
as well as the reaction of various damage to the lungs and premature species and the same environmental
pollutants in the atmosphere. deaths. impacts as PM10.
Source: Adapted from Environment Canada Fact Sheet 93-1 and Environment Canada Clean Air website
http://www.ec.gc.ca/air/introduction_e.html
Urban Transportation Council
Conseil des transports urbains 2
TRANSPORTATION IS A MAJOR CONTRIBUTOR TO POOR AIR QUALITY...
Transportation and Air Quality
"Automobiles produce approximately half the pollut-
There are many factors that contribute to air pollution in ants that combine to form ground-level ozone, the
urban areas including electricity generation, industrial main ingredient in smog. In summer, smog can dam-
processes, building heating systems, and transportation. age vegetation and have adverse effects on human
The burning of fossil fuels in motor vehicles is among the health."
most significant contributors to air pollution. Transporta- Source: Environment Canada
tion is the largest contributor to emissions of carbon
monoxide and nitrogen oxides (NOx) and a major con-
tributor to Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). In sun-
light, NOx and VOCs react to form ground-level ozone,
Contribution by Mode
the main component of smog. Transportation also pro- When measured in terms of emissions per passenger-
duces particulate matter, a component of smog and a kilometre, a measure that allows comparisons across
cause of respiratory and breathing problems. modes, passenger cars emit nearly three times as much
CO2 and NOx as a standard urban bus assuming typical
load factors. Even at load factors as low as six passen-
Contribution of Transportation to Air Emissions (1995) gers per bus, a bus consumes less fuel and produces
fewer emissions per passenger-kilometre than a car car-
rying a single occupant4. Transit options that rely on elec-
trical power generation produce even less emissions--
such as subways, light rail vehicles, trolley buses and
streetcars. (Estimation of the net impact of these emis-
sions requires consideration as to whether the electricity
is produced by burning fossil fuels or from cleaner sources
such as hydro or wind power.)
Comparison of Air Emissions by Passenger Mode
(a) Relative to all sources excluding open sources (e.g., prescribed
burning, dust from paved/unpaved roads)
Source: Environment Canada, Backgrounder- On-Road Vehicle and
Engine Emission Regulations, http://www.ec.gc.ca/Press/2003/
030102_b_e.htm
Most air emissions from transportation are attributable to
the operation of road vehicles including private vehicles
(cars and light trucks/SUVs/minivans) and commercial Source: Environment Canada, Making Transportation Sustainable,
A Case Study of the Quebec City-Windsor Corridor, March 2002.
vehicles. In 1995, light duty vehicles, including SUVs,
were responsible for approximately 75% of the total trans-
For freight modes, there are conflicting opinions as to
port emissions of carbon monoxide2. Heavy duty trucks
which modes produce the least amount of emissions for
were responsible for 30% of the emissions of nitrogen
a given amount of work. The conflicting opinions arise
oxides. U.S. studies indicate that 70-80 percent of the
mostly because trucks and trains rate differently for dif-
cancer risk from air pollution is due to particulate emis-
ferent types of emission and because the two modes
sions from diesel engines3.
function differently. Trains tend to move heavier bulk goods
Urban Transportation Council
3 Conseil des transports urbains
over longer distances. Trucks tend to move lighter goods They will govern passenger vehicles, including pick-up
over shorter distances. Truck use is increasing rapidly, trucks, minivans, and sport utility vehicles, as well as
and this in itself is contributing to increases in air emis- trucks of all sizes. Environment Canada estimates that
sions. in 2020 the new regulations will reduce emissions of NOx,
PM, CO, and VOCs by 73%, 64 %, 23 %, and 14%,
respectively, compared with what would be emitted if cur-
Progress and Outlook rent standards were maintained7. However, total emis-
A encouraging area with respect to air quality and emis- sion reductions due to improved standards will be ne-
sions is the role technology has played in reducing the gated by increased vehicle use.
emissions intensity of both passenger and freight ve- Thus, the anticipated improvements should not lead
hicles. Among the most significant changes have been policy-makers to conclude that changes in behaviour are
the introduction of catalytic converters and the elimina- not required. Moreover, the World Health Organization
tion of lead from gasoline. The impacts of these changes reports that "recent developments in our understanding
on overall air emissions have been offset by large in- of the effects of air pollutants on health suggest that, at
creases in travel activity. As the table opposite shows, in least for particulate matter and ground-level ozone, all
the last decade average emissions factors (i.e., grams of levels of exposure above zero are associated with effects
emissions per vehicle-kilometre) for heavy trucks have on health"8.
declined by 33-47% for the indicated pollutants, but the
amount of travel by heavy trucks has increased by 35%,
mostly off-setting the improvements in emissions rates. Change in Vehicle Emission Rates and Activity
(2000 compared with 1990)
Another offsetting factor is the increased use of light
trucks, mini-vans, and sport-utility vehicles (SUVs) for
Percent change in emissions
passenger travel. Between 1990 and 2001, the number of per vehicle-kilometre (a)
light trucks in use increased by 70% while the number of Percent
Exhaust Exhaust change in
cars dropped by 1%5. According to data developed for Hydro- carbon nitrogen vehicle-
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a light carbons monoxide oxide kilometres
(b)
truck or SUV produces 30% more NOx emissions per Vehicle Class (HC) (CO) (NOx)
kilometre than a typical passenger car6. Until recently, Passenger cars -30% -22% -24% - 12%
vehicles classified as light trucks, which include minivans (excl. SUVs)
(Gasoline)
and SUVs, have been subject to less stringent emission
standards than passenger cars. Light Trucks/ -39% -31% -24% + 51%
SUVs/minivans
Further improvements in vehicle emission standards are (Gasoline)
imminent. On January 2, 2003, the Government of Canada Heavy Trucks -33% -16% -47% + 35%
announced new regulations governing emission standards (Diesel)
for 2004 and later for on-road vehicles and engines. They
are significantly more stringent than previous standards. (a)
Based on US average fleet data, which is similar to average
These emission standards are closely tied to those of fleet data in Canada. Source: US EPA
the EPA and are often referred to as the Tier II standards. (b)
Based on data from Natural Resources Canada, Office of
Energy Efficiency, 2002
ALL MODES OF TRANSPORTATION MUST BE PART OF THE SOLUTION
TO AIR QUALITY PROBLEMS...
A Journey Towards Improved Air Quality use than on transit. In many cases, employment centres
are developed away from traditional town or city centres,
Urban transportation moves goods and people for a mul- losing the opportunity for living within walking/cycling dis-
titude of purposes that improve quality of life, but at a tance from work and social/cultural activities.
cost in air quality. As noted earlier, improvements in en-
gine design and emissions control have been offset by a All sectors of urban life must contribute if a sizable re-
steady increase in the number of vehicles on the road duction in air pollution is to be achieved. In most urban
and the distances they are driven. New communities are areas, transportation is the major source of emissions.
being constructed with more emphasis on automobile Moreover, it is the sector that can be most easily seen
Urban Transportation Council
Conseil des transports urbains 4
making a contribution to the situation, whether it appears transportation supply management programs,
to be a positive or negative. including options that reduce congestion and related
Improvements in the transportation sector must address emissions (provided they limit induced travel); and
vehicle and fuel technologies as well as transportation consumer-education and awareness programs.
activity and behaviour. The problems cannot be solved
using a single approach. It's important to address all as- Many of these types of initiatives were outlined in TAC's
pects of the transportation system, including supporting URBAN TRANSPORTATION VISION in 1993. They re-
infrastructure. For example, the use of longer-lasting as- main relevant today.
phalt and concrete pavements means fewer delays due Public Transit
to road construction. The result is less congestion, and
avoidance of some of the much higher levels of emis- Public transit utilizing bus, streetcar, light-rail or subway
sions associated with stop-and-start traffic. technologies has the ability to carry passengers much
more efficiently than private automobiles, resulting in sig-
nificantly reduced air emissions.
Private Automobiles Canadians living in major urban areas usually have ac-
Much attention has been directed toward reducing the cess to public transit. Transit system operators endeav-
impacts of the automobile. Manufacturers of cars and our to structure service around the needs and the desires
trucks have made numerous technological changes di- of users, but in many cases an array of conflicting needs
rected towards improving fuel efficiency and reducing works against full use of transit. Several factors make
emissions. However, the technological advances have private automobiles a desirable choice for many travel-
been offset by increases in the number of vehicles and lers. They include low-cost or free parking at work sites
resulting increases in traffic, as well as the trend towards and dispersed trip patterns resulting from urban sprawl
use of larger and more powerful vehicles such as SUVs. and uncoordinated land-use planning. The Canadian Ur-
ban Transit Association and other organizations continu-
Improvements in the passenger-vehicle sector must start ally advance the use of transit as part of a sustainable
with the adoption of stringent vehicle emission regula- urban community. They urge that transit be seen as an
tions nation-wide, including those that will affect SUVs. It investment in a community rather than a cost to society.
is also desirable to have similar, if not identical, stan-
dards and practices for in use vehicles in all jurisdictions. Increasing transit ridership is a key decision-making prin-
For example, only a few provinces have implemented ciple elaborated in A NEW VISION FOR URBAN TRANS-
emissions-testing programs. Other options include incen- PORTATION. The principle points to the provision of "higher
tives to influence vehicle purchase choices, such as quality transit service to increase its attractiveness rela-
`feebates' whereby less efficient vehicles attract higher tive to the private auto". Implementing the principle poses
purchase taxes or annual licence fees with correspond- many challenges. The implementation could be achieved
ing rebates in respect of more efficient vehicles. in part by changing existing communities and planning
new communities, both in ways that reduce dependence
Improvements are also likely to be made through in- on the private automobile.
creased use of new vehicle-propulsion technologies and
fuels that offer the potential to reduce air emissions sub- Transit continues to be under-funded in most urban ar-
stantially. These technologies include hybrid vehicles, eas. Rather than investing in transit ridership growth, most
battery-electric vehicles, fuel-cell vehicles and vehicles transit agencies are struggling to maintain existing infra-
structure and service levels10. Few agencies have the ability
running on alternative fuels including ethanol, natural gas,
to experiment with new forms of service that could in-
clean diesel, and biodiesel9.
crease transit ridership.
In addition to technology improvements, there are many
other well-documented strategies for reducing emissions
from passenger vehicles. Examples are: A recent survey of transit agencies by the
Canadian Urban Transit Association (CUTA) identi-
economic instruments, including fuel taxation and fied a need for approximately $21 billion in transit
road pricing; equipment and infrastructure during the five-year
period 2004-2008. About half of this total amount
changes in urban structure including the promotion was for projects that were planned and budgeted.
of more compact mixed-use developments that make The remainder was for projects that would require
walking, cycling, and transit more feasible; new funding from other sources.
transportation demand management (TDM) programs Source: CUTA Transit Infrastructure Needs Survey
2004-2008, Canadian Urban Transit Association,
including high-occupancy vehicle lanes and rideshare
February, 2004.
initiatives;
Urban Transportation Council
5 Conseil des transports urbains
As the relationship between health and air quality receives egies for reducing motorized transportation and related
more attention and becomes better understood, increased air-quality impacts.
use of public transit must be seen as a cost-effective
way to reduce vehicle emissions. Substantial investment
Freight Transportation
is required to encourage more people to use the various Urban areas by definition are gathering places for com-
means of public transit, thereby increasing the overall merce and the transport facilities needed to move goods
efficiency of the transportation system. The investment to and from business locations. Current goods-movement
would provide for such incentives as: patterns, whether for long haul or local delivery, rely heavily
reduced transit fares; on trucks, adding to air emissions. A NEW VISION FOR
URBAN TRANSPORTATION addressed the movement
substantially increased service levels, combined with of goods, acknowledging that "many inefficiencies exist".
the implementation of innovative service-delivery These inefficiencies can be reduced with the added ben-
mechanisms and cleaner transit technologies; and, efit of reduced air emissions. Promising options, to name
a few, include:
implementation of measures to increase the efficiency
of transit services, including bus lanes and exclusive better planning for goods movement at all stages of
rights-of-way for transit. urban planning and land development;
These must be supported by promotion of more transit- improved vehicle utilization through better matching
supportive land use. This can involve limits on expansion
of vehicles to size and type of delivery, and through
of urban boundaries, increases in development densities,
reducing the number of trips when trucks are empty
mixing of uses, and focusing of development on nodes
or lightly loaded;
and corridors that are easily served by transit.
Non-Motorized Transportation consolidation of delivery services to and from
congested areas; and,
Non-motorized forms of transportation such as walking,
cycling and roller-blading produce virtually zero air emis- greater use of intermodal freight (i.e., utilizing rail or
sions. Just as public transit is an integral part of solving marine modes) where it can be made cost-and time-
urban air quality problems, so too are these modes. In efficient through improved infrastructure.
addition to helping to reduce air emissions, walking and
cycling improve health and fitness and reduce the need Many of these changes would require suppliers and cus-
for costly road improvements. There are obvious concerns tomers to accept new ways of doing business.
about exercising in conditions of poor air quality. How- Leadership in reducing the trucking industry's emissions
ever, the benefits of the exercise likely outweigh the risks could best come from national and provincial associa-
of increased exposure to air pollution, provided caution is tions of trucking firms working to educate their members
used in areas of high pollution and on days when air qual- and the general public. Such efforts should be helped by
ity is poor11.
government initiatives including improved data collection
Trip-avoidance or trip-substitution solutions such as tele- and dissemination and support for education programs.
conferencing and telecommuting are other effective strat-
ACTIONS ARE REQUIRED AT ALL LEVELS...
A Strategy for Change National Level
Canada cannot grow as it has in the past and still expect Alone and in cooperation with provincial governments,
to improve air quality. Achieving better air quality will re- the federal government monitors urban air quality across
quire sustained action at the national, provincial, and lo- Canada. It also develops and supports programs to re-
cal levels. These actions will have to include education, search and monitor air quality concerns. As well, the
incentives, and regulations, in that order, to ensure federal government acts to increase awareness of air
continuous improvement in air quality. quality issues through education, and to foster actions at
the individual and community levels required to reduce
Practitioners in urban transportation and those in respon- transportation's contribution to air quality problems. Na-
sible positions in industry and government must take re- tional and regional transport associations can play a
sponsibility for bringing about change. strong role in supporting education and awareness pro-
grams by disseminating information to their members.
Urban Transportation Council
Conseil des transports urbains 6
Moreover, the federal government has a key role to play ing for urban transit could help ensure that transit is en-
in ensuring incentives are in place to improve air quality hanced and expanded to attract new riders and maintain
through changes to vehicle and fuel technologies as well existing riders. Such programs are in place in Vancouver,
as changes in transport behaviour. Such incentives could Edmonton, Calgary, and Montreal. Increasing transit use
include: has the further benefit of freeing up road capacity for goods
movement.
grants and tax exemptions for the development of
advanced-technology vehicles and cleaner fuels; Provincial governments are responsible for vehicle regis-
tration and licensing. Through this role, it is possible to
incentives for increased transit use, such as regulate vehicle emissions through emissions-testing pro-
allowing employees to receive tax-free employer- grams and on-road smog patrols. This is already done in
provided transit benefits; some provinces. Removing `gross' polluters from the road
helps to assure the public that progress is being made.
increased funding for public transit and other more As well, vehicle registration charges could be more di-
sustainable modes of transport to enable these rectly related to fuel efficiency or to emissions, or both,
modes to compete with private automobiles in terms with the most polluting vehicles attracting the highest
of coverage, convenience, and cost (securing transit vehicle registration fees.
funding through dedicated federal fuel taxes is an
idea that has received much attention from the trans-
portation community in recent years; other user fees Dedicated fuel tax programs for transportation,
can also generate revenue, as demonstrated in including transit, have been implemented in
British Columbia and Quebec); Vancouver, Edmonton, Calgary, and Montreal.
incentives for more efficient goods movement, includ- Source: TAC Briefing, INNOVATIONS FOR
ing funding for new infrastructure to facilitate FINANCING URBAN TRANSPORTATION, June
intermodal freight and logistics approaches that 2002.
increase operating efficiency.
Finally, the federal government needs to adopt and en- Ontario's emissions testing program - Drive Clean
force regulations that apply progressively more stringent has been credited with reducing smog-causing
emission standards to on-road vehicles. Efforts to coor- emissions from vehicles by 15.2 per cent.
dinate regulations with the U.S. are continuing.
Source: Ontario Ministry of Environment News
Provincial Level Release, August 7, 2002
Several things could be done by provincial governments
to help reduce transport's contribution to poor air quality.
Actions are required in the areas of: Local and Regional Level
governance and funding of urban transport; Municipal governments play a critical role in bringing about
improved air quality in urban communities. There are many
improved infrastructure, including selection of tools they can deploy to improve education, provide in-
pavement and materials to minimize fuel consump- centives, and regulate factors that influence air quality.
tion and emissions; These include:
vehicle registration and licensing; fostering programs that encourage the use of non-
motorized travel, such as bicycle-user groups, TDM
taxation or incentive based approaches; and,
programs, provision of bike lanes, etc.;
emissions testing/monitoring and regulation of emis-
developing long-range transport and land-use plans
sions by vehicles in use.
that promote more compact, mixed- use, and
Provincial governments can play a key role in determin- transit-supportive land-use patterns;
ing how and which land-use policies are set through leg-
islation that regulates municipal actions. supporting the long-range plans with complementary
zoning regulations, including those that provide for
Encouraging mode shifts to transit is one of the most reduced parking of automobiles;
important ways provincial governments could help to im-
prove air quality. Programs that enable urban areas to making sure transit is attractive compared to private
use dedicated provincial fuel taxes to provide stable fund- automobiles by providing adequate transit infrastruc-
Urban Transportation Council
7 Conseil des transports urbains
ture and service levels combined with convenient Conclusion
routing, safe and clean equipment, reliable schedul-
Improved air quality is a health issue that needs to be
ing, and competitive fares;
addressed from national, provincial and local viewpoints.
using or requiring the use of construction materials Transportation of goods and people is vital to Canadians'
and road maintenance practices that minimize air high quality of life. Reducing the negative impacts of motor
emissions; vehicle emissions must be part of the mission of a re-
sponsible transport community.
setting examples for others by adopting a `green fleet' Most air pollution in Canada occurs in urban regions. It is
concept when purchasing new vehicles and in main- there too that there are the greatest opportunities to make
tenance programs. significant forward steps to reduce air pollution. To do so
requires education, incentives, and regulation.
ENDNOTES
1
The New Vision for Urban Transportation identified 13 decision making principles as follows:
1. Plan for increased densities and more mixed land use
2. Promote walking as the preferred mode for person trips
3. Increase opportunities for cycling as an optional mode of travel
4. Provide higher quality transit service to increase its attractiveness relative to the private auto
5. Create an environment in which automobiles can play a more balanced role
6. Plan parking supply and price to be in balance with walking, cycling, transit and auto priorities
7. Improve the efficiency of the urban goods distribution system
8. Promote inter-modal and inter-line connections
9. Promote new technologies which improve urban mobility and help protect the environment
10. Optimize the use of existing transportation systems to move people and goods
11. Design and operate transportation systems which can be used by the physically challenged
12. Ensure that urban transportation decisions protect and enhance the environment
13. Create better ways to pay for future urban transportation systems
2
Environment Canada, 1995 Criteria Air Contaminant Emissions for Canada, December 1999.
3
American Lung Association and Environmental Defence, Closing the Diesel Divide, Protecting Public
Health From Diesel Air Pollution, 2003.
4
Assuming fuel consumption of 11 litres per 100 kilometres for cars and 60 L/100km for buses. It is recognized
that relative performance with respect to individual pollutants would vary because of differences in fuel type
and emissions control systems.
5
Natural Resources Canada, Office of Energy Efficiency, Energy Database
http://www.oee.nrcan.gc.ca/neud/dpa/home.cfm
6
US EPA, National Transportation Statistics, Table 4-38, Estimated National Average Vehicle Emissions
Rates by Vehicle Type and Fuel, http://www.bts.gov/publications/nts/2002/index.html
7
Environment Canada, On-Road Vehicle And Engine Emission Regulations,
http://www.ec.gc.ca/Press/2003/030102_b_e.htm.
8
World Heath Organization, Air Quality Guidelines, 1999, Chapter 3. http://www.who.int/peh/air/Airqualitygd.htm
9
For an overview of current and emerging vehicle technologies, see Transport Canada, Advanced Vehicles
Program, 2001-2002 Annual Report, Road Safety and Motor Vehicle Registration Directorate, January 2003.
http://www.tc.gc.ca/roadsafety/atvpgm/menu.htm
10
Transport Canada, Urban Transit in Canada Taking Stock, 2001
11
Health Canada, Clean Air Champions - "Getting Active For Cleaner Air" - Education Resource Kit
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/air_quality/publications/clean_air_champions/health_impacts.htm
Urban Transportation Council
Conseil des transports urbains 8
Useful Websites:
A New Vision for Urban Transportation, Transportation Association of Canada, May 1993
http://www.tac-atc.ca/english/pdf/urban.pdf
A Primer on Urban Transportation and Global Climate Change, Transportation Association of Canada,
May 1998 http://www.tac-atc.ca/english/pdf/global.pdf
Environment Canada Clean Air Introduction www.ec.gc.ca/air
On-road vehicle and engine Emission Regulations, Environment Canada
http://www.ec.gc.ca/Press/2003/030102_b_e.htm
Auto Emissions An Overview, US EPA http://www.epa.gov/otaq/05-autos.htm
Exhaustion: A Guide to Transportation Emissions, Environment Canada
http://www.ec.gc.ca/emission/toce.html
Canada's National Environmental Indicator Series 2003 Urban Air Quality
http://www.ec.gc.ca/soer-ree/English/Indicator_series/default.cfm
Toronto Smog Summit http://www.city.toronto.on.ca/cleanairpartnership/smog_summit.htm
Greater Vancouver Regional District Air Quality http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/air/quality.htm
Urban Transportation Council
9 Conseil des transports urbains
Acknowledgements and Disclaimer For more information about TAC's urban transporta-
tion programs, contact:
This briefing was prepared by the Sustainable Trans-
portation Standing Committee of the TAC Urban Katherine Forster
Transportation Council. The principal authors were Program Manager
Bruce Duncan and Brian Hollingworth, with input from For additional copies of this briefing or information on
Richard Gilbert. The support of the members of the other TAC publications please contact:
Sustainable Transportation Committee and Urban
Transportation Council in the review process was ap- Membership Services and Communications
preciated. Or visit TAC's web site www.tac-atc.ca
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that all information in this briefing is accurate and up 2323 St. Laurent Blvd., Ottawa, ON K1G 4J8
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omissions. E-mail: secretariat@tac-atc.ca
Urban Transportation Council
Conseil des transports urbains 10