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Fifth International Symposium on Digital Earth …
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Fifth International Symposium on Digital Earth June 5th, 2007
The Case for Climate Literacy in the 21st Century
Frank Niepold
NOAA/UCAR Climate Program Office, Washington, D.C., USA
David Herring
NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, Earth Sciences Division, Greenbelt, MD, USA
David McConville
The Elumenati, West Asheville, NC, USA
KEYWORDS together much more effectively than the sum of the
Earth science, science literacy, education, individual parts. We argue that the inherent
visualization, storytelling, climate change difficulty of improving public climate science
literacy, much less addressing the problems that
ABSTRACT stem from illiteracy and negative attitudes toward
The advent of the Internet and evolutionary the science, render the problem too great for any
advances in geospatial data browsers, virtual one agency or effort to tackle alone. Attacking the
globes, and immersive visualization displays have problem synergistically increases the potential for
significantly increased the potential for a more success while enriching all who are involved in the
climate science literate public. In the same time, collaborative effort.
space-based Earth-observing agencies like NASA
and NOAA have geometrically increased the INTRODUCTION
volume of data they collect everyday, over the "The consequences of various world plans could
entire globe. Fortunately, Moore's Law held true be computed and projected, using the accumulated
during that same time span so that the processing history-long inventory of economic, demographic,
capacity of modern computers enabled scientists to and sociological data. All the world would be
collect, process, and share these data with dynamically viewable and picturable and
increasing efficiency and turn-around time. In just radioable to all the world, so that common
the last two decades the combination of these consideration in a most educated manner of all
technologies has substantially increased public world problems by all world people would become
access to cutting-edge climate science data and a practical event."
information. But has there been a corresponding -- R. Buckminster Fuller,
increase in public climate science literacy? And, if in Education Automation, 1962
so, has there also been a corresponding increase in
positive public attitudes and opinions about Before the advent of the Internet, R.
climate science research? In this paper we review Buckminster Fuller foresaw a convergence of
some current research about the public's technologies, data, and applications that would one
awareness, understanding, and opinions about day afford all citizens of the world a virtually
current climate research. We review some unlimited ability to summon information about any
initiatives that our agencies have taken to help time and place in the world. The interface, he said,
improve climate science literacy. Our own could be conceived as a "Geoscope"--a large
research, and others', suggests it is possible to network of Earth-shaped displays that would
improve climate science literacy and positive vividly display real-time global data, or perhaps
attitudes about modern climate research, given the animate to show changes over time. "With the
use of particular methods of communication. We Geoscope," Fuller explained, "humanity would be
conclude with a call for collaborators to work with able to recognize formerly invisible patterns and
NASA and NOAA in the assembly of a thereby to forecast and plan in vastly greater
"synergetic" new climate science communications magnitude than heretofore." In Fuller's view, such
and education infrastructure, as articulated by the sophisticated technology would grant users easy
late Buckminster Fuller, in which the whole works access to complex datasets together with analytic
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Fifth International Symposium on Digital Earth June 5th, 2007
tools that would readily yield deeper insights and WorldWind, GeoFusion, ESRI's ArcGIS Explorer,
understanding. By helping the world's citizens EarthSLOT, and others. While the popularity of
and decision makers to literally see megatrends these browsers is rapidly increasing, their
occurring on our world -- and their interconnected numerous application areas are only just beginning
causes and effects -- Fuller hoped the Geoscope, to be realized. Similarly, internally and externally
actively deployed within the framework of his light-projected digital globe displays, like NOAA's
"World Game," would encourage comprehensive Science on a Sphere, are installed in numerous
and anticipatory understanding of how to make the science centers around the country. Furthermore, a
world work more effectively for "100 percent of global network of portable and permanent
humanity in the shortest possible time without "fulldome" theaters continues to expand, able to
ecological offense or the disadvantage of anyone" project a broad range of computer-generated
(Fuller, 1981). simulations beyond the strict astronomical themes
What might have seemed farfetched to of their planetarium predecessors. By projecting
anyone reading Fuller's words 45 years ago today large-scale visualizations of local and global
seems imminent. Over the past two decades geospatial data onto spherical surfaces, these
climate research agencies like NASA and NOAA technologies serve as "attention-grabbers" to
have collected and published petabytes facilitate dialogues about climate science topics.
(quadrillions of bytes) of freely available (and In short, today's combination of data resources,
low-cost) data sets quantifying a wide variety of computing technologies, geobrowsers, virtual
our world's biological, geological, chemical, and globes, and immersive display technologies can be
physical parameters. Fortunately, Moore's Law used to provide experiential data-driven decision
held true during that same time span so that there support and scenario development tools
was a parallel increase in the computational reminiscent of Fuller's vision: "All the world data
capacity required to collect, process, and share would be dynamically viewable and picturable and
these data with increasing efficiency. Likewise, to relayable by radio to all the world, so that common
help scientists and non-scientists more effectively consideration in a most educated manner of all
tap into this wealth of data, a new generation of world problems by all world people would become
geospatial data browsers (henceforth a practical everyday, -hour, and -minute event"
"geobrowsers") and other computer tools exists (Fuller, 1981).
today enabling users, via the Internet, to freely (or, But what has been the effect of all the
in some cases, at low-cost) and almost aforementioned technological progress on the
instantaneously summon and display datasets climate science literacy of non-scientists? One
allowing them to visualize and understand ongoing might assume that such progress would inevitably
changes in weather, climate, land and ocean have lead to citizens and policy makers who have
surface features, atmospheric chemistry, etc. a much more detailed understanding of Earth's
There are also biological, economic, and socio- climate system than they did, say, two decades
political datasets readily available such as ago. One might further assume that such progress
epidemiological vectors, population density and would produce greater confidence in climate
poverty indicators, etc. Decision support system scientists among non-scientists. Today, climate
managers increasingly rely upon such data to serve scientists have the capacity to ask and answer
society by forecasting climate impacts on both complex and critical questions about how our
regional and global agricultural markets, world works that would astonish climate scientists
correlating economic trends with environmental of just one generation ago. Moreover, they can do
health in developing countries, identifying and so in a tiny fraction of the time it took their
mitigating risk from natural hazards, devising new counterparts of yesteryear, and then they can
ways to stimulate commerce through new demonstrate to the public that they have done so
technologies, and a myriad of other ways. with unprecedented clarity, using the
Over the past decade, "virtual globe" aforementioned data visualization tools. Thus, one
visualization platforms reminiscent of, or directly might assume non-scientists' attitudes--including
inspired by, Fuller's Geoscope have been the trust, credibility, and positive feelings--toward
developed, including Google Earth, NASA's climate researchers would have improved. Yet our
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Fifth International Symposium on Digital Earth June 5th, 2007
research as well as research by social scientists will continue warming through the course of the
reveals that the understanding and perceptions 21st century, and human emissions of greenhouse
today among non-scientists is mixed, at best. gases are major cause of the warming trend--each
Why? And perhaps more importantly, how can we of these statements are empirically observed,
better use our modern suite of data visualization reproducible facts that are not questioned the peer-
tools to improve the public's literacy and attitudes reviewed climate science literature (IPCC 2007).
about climate science? Where does this mistaken public perception come
from? Considering most Americans get most of
Today's climate literacy crisis their science information from TV news and other
Since 1997 social scientist Jon Krosnick, of news media, could such news media inadvertently
Stanford University, has tracked Americans' be misleading the public?
awareness, understanding, and opinions about Communications research shows that the
global warming through periodic random surveys. quality and style of news reporting significantly
Between 1997 and 2006, he observed a steady influences readers' / listeners' understanding and
increase in public concern about the issue, which perceptions about global warming (Corbett and
spiked sharply upward between 2005-06. He Durfee, 2004). Journalists are trained to "balance"
reported, "A vast majority, 85 percent, believes their reports by presenting both (or all) sides of a
global warming probably is occurring, up slightly given issue. Though noble in its original intent,
from 80 percent in a 1998 poll. But fewer than this practice, ironically, sometimes introduces the
four in 10 are very sure of it, a level of uncertainty potential for bias in reports about climate change
that reflects broad and continued belief that research. A recent review of the climate science
scientists themselves disagree on whether or not literature reveals no evidence of controversy
it's happening." He notes that, in 2006, 64 percent among climate scientists about whether the globe
of Americans perceived "a lot of disagreement" has warmed by at least 0.5°C in the last century,
among scientists about whether global warming is nor whether humans are substantial reason for the
happening (Krosnick, 2006). Krosnick's findings warming due to the increase in greenhouse gas
are independently supported by Georgetown emissions (Boykoff and Boykoff, 2004). Whereas
University Professor Thomas Brewer, who there may be little or no disagreement among the
synthesized the results from a variety of surveys science community about the fact that the globe is
conducted between 1989 and 2006 (by warming and humans are largely the cause of it,
ABC/Washington Post, Gallup, ORCA, PIPA, and journalists continue to seek out dissenting or
PPIC) to measure public awareness, understanding alternative views to preserve their notion (or at
and opinions about climate change. Collectively least the appearance of) balance in their reports.
those surveys reveal a consensus among Such journalistic practice tends to distort climate
Americans that global warming is happening, and science in the minds of non-scientists by
that they are worried a "great deal" or "fair fomenting the false impression that there is more
amount" about it (Brewer, 2006). And yet Brewer uncertainty among scientists than there really is
too notes that there is a disparity between (Corbett and Durfee, 2004). And worse, such
Americans' concerns about global warming and journalistic practice lends a disproportionate voice
their perceptions of uncertainty and disagreement in the mass media to lobbyists and policy analysts
among climate scientists. who may be more interested in advocating or
In fact, there is no such disagreement defending a given political, social, or commercial
among climate scientists. We recognize and agenda than educating the public about climate
acknowledge that there is always some uncertainty science. "Reality must take precedence over
in all branches of science, including climatology, public relations," the late, great physicist Richard
among even the most well established theories. Feynman once observed, "for nature cannot be
We assert that, in scientific terms, "uncertainty" is fooled" (Feynman, 1986).
not the same thing as "doubt"; nor is uncertainty,
by itself, a cause for disagreement. Earth's average On climate science literacy and why it matters
temperature has risen by at least 0.5°C over the Generally speaking, "science literate"
last century, climate modelers predict the globe people have a basic understanding of how
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Fifth International Symposium on Digital Earth June 5th, 2007
biological, chemical, geological, and physical therefore predictable; (2) the field of climatology
systems work in the natural world. Such people is progressive and cumulative, and understanding
understand the nature of science and scientific of Earth's climate system is still evolving; and (3)
inquiry, they understand the processes and climate scientists rely upon empirical evidence--
methods for gathering the knowledge, and thus which can be reproduced and validated through
they have some ability to assess the validity and peer review.
relevance of scientific information. However, That said, one should never assume there's
since no one can know everything, who is to say a positive correlation between understanding and
what set of facts a person needs to know to be positive attitudes about a given science policy.
deemed truly "science literate"? We acknowledge Knowledge is not a strong predictor of pro or con
and commend AAAS Project 2061, which has attitudes about science policy. There is little
published a detailed definition and learning evidence that mediated science communication has
progression maps of what citizens should know in any effect at all on adult science literacy (Borchelt,
order to be science literate (AAAS, 2007) 2002). Likewise, one should never assume a
The late Jean Mayer once opined that positive correlation between favorable public
science literacy isn't a measure of what one opinion and a desired science policy decision. In
knows, but rather is a measure of one's skill at the United States, science policy is set by members
gathering information about a given subject of the Executive and Legislative Branches--
together with one's ability to distinguish credible usually guided and informed by senior or
from non-credible sources. Not everyone is prominent members of the science community--
concerned with promoting science literacy; there and there is typically no wider public participation
are many agendas driven by social, political, and in the process (Miller, 2004). To put it bluntly,
commercial interests and therefore "spin" abounds. decision makers rarely (if ever) consult popular
This fact carries serious implications for the public opinion polls when discussing and deciding
quantity and quality of the information available science policy. President John F. Kennedy's
via the Internet today. Given that the Internet historic call to put a human on the moon is a case
places exponentially greater information at the in point. Kennedy's commitment was made and,
public's fingertips than was previously available, subsequently, the Congress allocated dollars for
`discernment of credible sources' is an essential the mission even though popular opinion polls
skill for the science literate person. throughout the 1960s showed that a majority of
We believe that science literacy matters Americans were opposed to sending a human to
because science and democracy go hand in hand. the moon because they thought it was too costly
Science engenders democracy by evolving how (Launius, 2003).
people think, and by enhancing how they interact However, one should not conclude that
(Kuhn, 2003). Science is a uniquely human public understanding and public opinion are
endeavor (as far as we know) which promises to irrelevant to science policy. When policy leaders
improve our understanding of the natural world do not agree on how to resolve a given science
and, hopefully, to improve our quality of life. The issue, their debates and disagreements will excite
public, therefore, has a say in whether and what the attention of journalists, thereby giving
science will be supported using public tax dollars, increased exposure to the issue among mainstream
and whether and how the fruits of science should media. In such cases, policy leaders also often
be integrated into society in applied ways. The appeal to their "science attentive publics" to get
more scientifically literate the citizens, the likelier involved by voicing their opinions to their
they are to understand news reports about a given government representatives and in public forums
science subject, to effectively participate in public (Miller, 2004). Research shows that roughly 40
dialogues about that subject, and to vote according million American adults are "science attentive"
to their views regarding science policy decisions. and roughly 12 million are "space attentive"--
"Climate science literacy" in particular, requires meaning they are very interested in public policy
citizens to understand three basic concepts: (1) pertaining to these subjects, they believe
climate scientists operate under the assumption themselves to be very well informed about these
that Earth's climate system is understandable, and subjects, and they regularly seek information about
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Fifth International Symposium on Digital Earth June 5th, 2007
them (Miller, 2004). Thus, government leaders' Antarctic biomes are being impacted, water quality
public appeals for support and concurrence from of lakes and rivers is affected, Spring arrives
members of this community are more likely to earlier bringing shifts in plant senescence and
elicit some response than, say, from among flower time as well as the potential to disrupt the
members of the "residual public"-- those who are patterns of migratory species. In short, the IPCC
interested and/or unaware of the issue. But report states, "it is likely (66 to 90 percent
if/when policy leaders debate possible actions probability) that anthropogenic warming has had a
about global warming, what will be the response discernible influence on many physical and
from the public? Is the public sufficiently well biological systems." These disturbing reports by
informed? What determines whether the public the IPCC point to a clear need to hold substantial
will support or oppose a given climate science policy relevant dialogues about the causes and
policy? effects of global warming, and what, if anything,
Jon Krosnick stated, "People who think should be done about them. The IPCC does not
scientists agree on the issue are much more apt to mince words on this point: "Adaptation will be
see it as a very serious problem, to call it important necessary to address impacts resulting from the
personally, to believe it's mainly caused by human warming which is already unavoidable due to past
activity, to think it can be addressed, and to say the emissions" (IPCC 2007).
government should do more (indeed, much more) Climate scientists are clear and
about it" (Krosnick, 2007). This point is unambiguous in their assessments of the problem,
particularly important given the Intergovernmental the likely impacts, and what must be done about it.
Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) Fourth But do non-scientists see it the same way? The
assessment: answer to this question contains good news and
some bad news: while public understanding of
"Global atmospheric concentrations of global warming is increasing at an unprecedented
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous rate, the seriousness that the public places on the
oxide have increased markedly as a issue is disproportionately low. What accounts for
result of human activities since 1750 this seeming disparity? Krosnick posits that
and now far exceed pre-industrial "beliefs about whether global warming is a
values determined from ice cores problem are a function of relevant personal
spanning many thousands of years. experiences (with the weather) and messages from
The global increases in carbon dioxide informants (in this case, scientists), whereas
concentration are due primarily to attitudes toward global warming are a function of
fossil fuel use and land-use change, particular perceived consequences of global
while those of methane and nitrous warming, and that certainty about these attitudes
oxide are primarily due to agriculture. and beliefs is a function of knowledge and prior
... The understanding of thought" (Krosnick et al., 2006). Given the scale
anthropogenic warming and cooling of mitigation and adaptation strategies that are
influences on climate has improved ... being debated, Krosnick's findings underscore the
leading to a very high confidence (90 need for a well-informed public -- particularly
percent) that the globally averaged net policy leaders and decision makers -- is essential.
effect of human activities since 1750 To convey the complexities of Earth's climate
has been one of warming, with a system requires a robust communications strategy
radiative forcing of +1.6 Wm-2." that is flexible enough to inform the decisions
(IPCC 2007) policy makers will need to make, while allowing
citizens to interact with the data and to investigate
In its subsequent assessment on the likely the science in forums and in formats with which
impacts of global warming, the IPCC summarizes they are comfortable. Emphasis should be placed
observational evidence that all continents and most on informing and guiding non-scientists in how to
oceans are being affected by regional climate think scientifically; not on telling them what to
changes and, particularly, temperature increases. think. We present some recommended strategies
Glaciers and ice sheets are melting, Arctic and for doing so in the following sections that climate
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Fifth International Symposium on Digital Earth June 5th, 2007
science research agencies in particular should The strategy is driven by audience needs, wants,
consider adopting. and expectations for climate science information;
by their capacity to understand it; and by how and
Many audiences, many levels of engagement where they seek it. The model is also useful in
In an ideal world, there would be one that it provides a framework for clarifying why
obvious method for communicating science results (i.e., what we hope to accomplish) our agencies are
to all people, scientists and non-scientists alike. trying to communicate with that stratum in
Alas, not all people are equal in their capacity to addition to what we're trying to communicate.
understand scientific information. There are many Starting with the least influential public
different audience and therefore there are many stratum and then moving up through the strata of
different information-seeking behaviors. increasing influence on science policy, our target
Moreover, every individual comes with personal audiences can be defined as follows (Miller,
predispositions and political biases that make them 2004):
more or less receptive to new scientific
information. Thus, there is no one-size-fits-all 1. "Uninterested and/or unaware"-- (sometimes
science communications strategy. But of course called "the residual public") referring to the
agencies and organizations operating on limited portion of the public who don't know and/or
resources must economize, balancing expense with don't care about climate science. This
efficiency and effectiveness. How can audience is the least likely to offer a return on
communicators succeed at such a complex task? investments in communicating with them, but
Classifying non-scientists into categories that we recognize that some fraction of this stratum
group individuals according to common has the potential to become interested in
characteristics, and then targeting each groups in climate science and therefore efforts should be
decreasing order of priority, is one way to simplify made to help them become interested in
the task. learning about the subject.
However, critics of this strategy will argue 2. "Climate science interested"-- referring to the
that it smacks of elitism while running the risk of portion of the public who are aware of climate
not serving parts of society on the basis of race, science and who are open to learning more
sex, income, social status, or some other such about it. This audience may yield some return
characteristic -- each of which is unacceptable. on investment in efforts to communicate with
Such an approach is hardly democratic, critics them, but they are typically not attentive or
further point out, and the benefits of science engaged enough to exert any real influence on
literacy should be available to all Americans. Still, science policy. But we recognize that some
among government agencies like NASA and fraction of this stratum has the potential to
NOAA there remains the issue of limited budgets become Earth science attentive and therefore
and the need to prioritize. To escape this efforts should be made to help these people
conundrum, we recommend classifying all of move up into the "attentive" stratum.
society into groups, or strata, so that all parts of 3. "Climate science attentive"-- referring to the
society are targeted but that the messages and portion of the public who are active seekers and
methods of delivery are tailored differently for consumers of Earth science information, who
each group. For example, if the goal is to consider themselves knowledgeable about the
influence science policy, using a stratified model subject, and who are willing to participate in
of society can be helpful in prioritizing audiences policy-relevant dialogue about it. This
according to their relative contributions to audience is likely to play a role in determining
determining science policy (Miller 2004). Another climate science policy, therefore investments
way is to characterize audiences according to their should be made to augment their understanding
science information-seeking habits. This approach of the subject. Plus, some fraction of this
offers agencies like NASA and NOAA an ability stratum has the potential to become more
to fine-tune their communications according to the engaged in climate science and therefore efforts
variables that determine what is the most effective should be made to help these people to move
and efficient way to reach each target audience. up into the next stratum.
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Fifth International Symposium on Digital Earth June 5th, 2007
4. "Climate science engaged"-- referring to citizen not obviously relevant -- and onto the scientists
scientists and/or professionals who use the themselves. In other words, people may not be
tools and data products from the Earth science predisposed to caring if, say, ozone in the
community in applied ways for commercial stratosphere over Antarctica is thinning, but they
(i.e. tourism, precision farming) or societal are predisposed to caring about other people (say,
benefit (i.e. risk assessment and mitigation, climate scientists for example) and, by association,
decision support systems). why the protagonist in the story cares if there is a
hole in the stratospheric ozone shield. Humans
Of course these strata are already populated, have an inherent readiness or predisposition to
so we know it is possible for individuals to move organize experience into story form: into
up through them. The question is: can we viewpoints, characters, intentions, sequential plot
significantly increase the number of people who structures, and the rest (Bruner, 1998). One
move up through these strata? If so, can we prove hundred thousand years of evolutionary preference
we did it? And if we can prove we did it, can we for, and reliance on, story has built into the human
demonstrate how we did it and then quantify what genetic code instructions to wire the brain to think
is our overall potential for moving people up in story terms by birth (Pinker, 2000). Conveying
through these strata? We have some evidence that, climate science information through stories
yes, we can significantly increase the number of provides an effective means of connecting with the
people who move up through these strata, and that, public, potentially raising their awareness and
yes, we can prove we did it. We also have some exciting them into becoming interested in climate
evidence as to how we did it but, at present, science. Moreover, by focusing on people doing
quantifying our potential for doing so remains an things, such as climate scientists revealing the
outstanding problem. Our objective, methods, and scientific method through narratives, emphasis is
supporting evidence, are presented in the placed upon how and why climate science is done
following section. and not on its end results. Through this, audiences
can learn how to think about the process of climate
The story of story and the Earth Observatory science instead of being told what to think about
There is ample evidence that providing its outcomes. Because stories provide context and
science information to people within the context of allow non-scientists to construct mental images of
a story enhances readers' / listeners' understanding how and why climate scientists conduct their
of the information, their ability to create meaning research -- and how and why their methods led to
from the new information they've received, and their conclusions -- the information is likelier to
their ability to remember that information (Haven, be perceived as credible and factual to non-
2005). Moreover, the human brain is wired to scientists. In short, writes oceanographer and
receive information in a story format (Bruner, storyteller Kendall Haven, "Mental story maps are
1998; Pinker, 2000). A story is often comprised of how humans make sense of other humans'
particular elements, including a protagonist (main behavior and create meaning from sensory input"
character), a complicating factor or problem, a (Haven, 2006).
narrative about the protagonist's struggle to Since it first published in April 1999,
resolve the complication (thereby adding drama), NASA's Earth Observatory (an on-line magazine
sensory details about where and how the about Earth system science, at
protagonist struggles in the narrative, and a earthobservatory.nasa.gov) has made climate
resolution in which the protagonist overcomes the science storytelling a central part of its focus. The
complication and reaches the goal. At their core, site's "Features" section contains more than 200
effective stories are often about people. climate-related stories about how NASA and
Thus stories can provide an effective way to NOAA scientists use remote-sensing data from
overcome socio-political impedances and negative NASA and NOAA satellites to advance
predispositions held by members of the understanding of Earth's climate system. Today,
"uninterested / unaware" and "interested" strata of the site receives about 25,000 unique visitors per
the public by shifting focus away from scientific day from all over the world. What, if any,
results or new inventions -- which are abstract and influence has the Earth Observatory's stories had
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Fifth International Symposium on Digital Earth June 5th, 2007
on its readers? We solicited readers' feedback on encouraging us to provide such resources along
three separate occasions over the last 8 years and with an on-line guidebook of ideas and activities
have found evidence that the site has indeed that would help hobbyists better understand what
elevated people from the "uninterested and/or changes to look for in Earth's climate system, and
unaware" stratum into the "climate science how to make sense of them using the tools and
interested" stratum. Specific to "awareness data resources provided.
raising," we presented the following statement to There are a range of professionals who are
our visitors: "I did not know that NASA studies by definition "climate science attentive"--
the Earth until I visited the Earth Observatory Web including students, formal and informal science
site," to which 27 percent of 2,033 public educators, journalists and science writers, and even
respondents agreed. We asked, "How easy or scientists in other fields of study. Our storytelling
difficult is it to understand the writing on the Earth strategy has had a similarly positive effect among
Observatory?" to which 52 percent of respondents visitors from each of these domains. For example,
selected "very easy" and another 37 percent chose we offered the following statement to the scientist
"fairly easy." More interestingly, we presented the respondents (86 percent of whom said they were
following statement in a later survey: "The Earth not affiliated with the agency): "I enjoy the
Observatory has made me want to learn more popular writing style on the Earth Observatory
about Earth's environment or climate change," to because it helps me to better understand science
which 39 percent of respondents "strongly agreed" topics outside of my own discipline," to which 96
and another 54 percent "agreed," out of 2,414 total percent agreed (32% said "strongly agree"; 64%
respondents. said "agree").
It's worth noting that 83 percent of the Among the 240 student respondents (98%
public respondents to our survey were 41 years old of whom were in high school or higher), 22
or older. More than half (53%) of these percent said "the Earth Observatory has helped me
respondents have had no formal science to consider becoming a scientist"; 39 percent said
coursework above the high school level. In terms the site "has made me more interested in taking
of their level of comfort and satisfaction with the science courses"; 37 percent said the site "has
information published on the site, 98 percent of made my science courses more interesting"; and
respondents said they were "highly likely" or 73 percent said it "has added to my knowledge
"likely" to recommend the Earth Observatory as a about topics I have studied in school." Moreover,
source of Earth science information to a friend or we find that many students use the stories in Earth
colleague. When we asked how often they visit Observatory as the basis for their own school-
the site, 11 percent said "daily," 56 percent said related projects. Specifically, 38 percent said,
"weekly," and 24 percent said "several times per "I've used [the site] as a resource for homework or
month." Thus we have clear evidence that the project"; 47 percent said, "I visit the site to learn
context and content provided in the site, in a story about Earth science related to my subject of
format, is elevating individuals up the public study"; and 28 percent said, "I've used the site to
continuum from "uninterested / unaware" into the find ideas for research projects or papers."
"aware and interested" and even into the Perhaps most gratifying, however, was the 71
"attentive" strata. But what about the next step: percent who said they "visit the Earth Observatory
going from "interested" and/or "attentive" up into for personal interest, not school related." Thus,
the "engaged" stratum? there is evidence that the site is helping students to
In two earlier surveys (2002 and 2004) we entertain science as a possible career path, to
asked visitors: "If you had easy-to-use software pursue higher degrees in science, and to cultivate a
and easy access to remote-sensing data, would you personal interest in the subject as well as
be interested in taking up Earth observation as a academic.
hobby?" Roughly two-thirds of our 1,996
respondents to this question said "yes," while Concluding call for a climate literacy coalition
about 30 percent said "maybe," and only 7 percent Richard Feynman once said, "NASpA [and
said "no." Moreover, in the open comments field by extension, NOAA] owes it to the citizens from
we provided, we received a number of suggestions whom it asks support to be frank, honest, and
http://www.isde5.org 8
Fifth International Symposium on Digital Earth June 5th, 2007
informative, so that these citizens can make the vision of the digital earth. As Helga Nowotny so
wisest decisions for the use of their limited eloquently wrote: "Innovation is the collective bet
resources." We agree with Feynman's statement, on a common fragile future, and neither science
and it is entirely commensurate with Buckminster nor society knows the secret of how to cope with
Fuller's vision for the Geoscope. The evidence we its inherent uncertainties. It can only be
have presented suggests that our effort to share our accomplished through an alliance among the
agencies' climate science research in both visual participants and a shared sense of direction"
and story formats is successfully promoting (Nowotny, 2005).
climate science literacy among non-climate-
scientists. Of course, more can and should be ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
done. For example, replicating these stories and This paper captures much of the conversations, e-
visualizations in other venues and using other mails and demonstrations over the past few years.
media (in addition to the Internet) would help us The participants in this unaffiliated and informal
dramatically broaden and amplify exposure to our group have generously and significantly
climate science research among non-scientists. contributed to the thoughts presented in this paper.
We must guard against presenting global Therefore we would like to thank the following:
warming as overwhelming or unsolvable because Carrie McDougall (NOAA), Kendall Haven, Jon
people stop paying attention to a problem when Miller (Michigan State), Jon Krosnick (Stanford),
they realize that there are no easy solutions for it Mark S. McCaffrey (CIRES), Rhian Salmon (IPY
(Krosnick, 2006). Moreover, people may judge as IPO), Joel Halvorson (Minnesota Planetarium and
nationally serious only those problems about Space Discovery Center), Ned Gardiner (American
which they think action should and can be taken Museum of Natural History), Christos
(Krosnick, 2006). These psychological insights Michalopoulos (NOAA), Kevin Ward (SSAI), and
into society point to a clear need to promote D'nardo Colucci and Clayton Hooker (The
climate science literacy in the United States, given Elumenati).
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