The Canadian Society for Civil Engineering "Entrusted to Our Care"…

The Canadian Society for
Civil Engineering



"Entrusted to Our Care"
Guidelines for Sustainable Development
Alan Perks, Brian Burrell, Bob Korol, Ata Khan, Jean Heroux, and Laurie Ford
Members of the CSCE Task Force on the updating of the CSCE Guidelines on Sustainable Development



Abstract: This document presents the draft CSCE Guidelines for Sustainable Development, updated in
2006, in response to changing issues and Civil Engineering needs. These revised guidelines are intended
to assist today's Civil Engineering community to practice their profession in the most sustainable manner
possible. The main focus is to instil the concepts of sustainability and life cycle assessment into the
planning, design and operation of civil infrastructure, and in this way promote the development of new
technologies and management practices for minimizing the use of energy, non-renewable resources, and
the production of waste materials.

1. LEGACY

The Civil Engineering profession has contributed much to human development and quality of life through
the provision of basic water supply, pollution control, transportation, industrial/commercial, and urban
infrastructure. Some notable Civil Engineering achievements since 1800 include:
    ·    The Bell Rock Lighthouse (Robert Stevenson ­ 1807); Submerged at high tide, the Bell Rock Reef at the
         entrance to the Firth of Forth had terrorized shipping for centuries and was responsible for hundreds of
         shipwrecks and thousands of lives lost. Many earlier attempts to build a lighthouse on it had failed.
         Stephenson's work still stands as the oldest operating lighthouse in the world.
    ·    The Stockton and Darlington Railway (George Stephenson ­ 1829); The first steam railway linking cities
         and towns with comfortable travel at a time when a hard day's journey covered 15 miles and most people
         never travelled more than a few miles from their birthplace. This represented unimaginable freedom.
    ·    The Great Eastern (I.K. Brunel ­ 1853); Over 700 feet long, the Great Eastern ushered in the age of iron
         ships, reduced transatlantic crossing times, and laid the first submarine cable linking Europe and North
         America. Our interconnected world today owes much to the Great Eastern.
    ·    The London Sewers (Sir Joseph Bazalgette ­ 1858); More than 1,000 miles of sewers were laid to replace
         some 200,000 cesspools at a time when regular cholera epidemics left as many as 35,000 dead at a time,
         and almost 60% of children from poor families never reached the age of 5 years. The benefits were
         immediate and widely acclaimed.
    ·    The Victoria Bridge (Robert Stephenson ­ 1859); The first crossing of the St. Lawrence river helped unite
         Upper and Lower Canada through trade with the New England colonies, thus providing an efficient means for
         goods, supplies and immigrants to develop Canada and the western territories.
    ·    The Canadian Pacific Railway (Sir Sandford Fleming ­ 1877); More than 46,000 miles of surveys on foot
         and canoe through the most arduous conditions and unknowns, finding a route for the transcontinental
         railway that helped unite the new Dominion of Canada after Confederation.
    ·    The Panama Canal (Ferdinand de Lesseps ­ 1894, and George Goethals ­ 1904); Linking the Atlantic
         and Pacific oceans, cutting months off the passage from the east coast to the west, hence stimulating trade,
         immigration and travel in the Americas.
    ·    The St. Lawrence Seaway (1957); Enabling ocean-going ships to reach Thunder Bay, and bring minerals
         from the Canadian Shield and wheat from the Prairies to markets in North America and Europe.
    ·    The Confederation Bridge (1997); A magnificent span of the Northumberland Strait, linking Prince Edward
         Island with the mainland, reducing travel time and stimulating economic development.

Each of these Civil Engineering works, in its own way, made life more comfortable, convenient,
accessible, healthy and longer - not only for the local populations, but ultimately for us all.
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But now that same infrastructure, and the economies and standard of living that it supports, is contributing
to environmental degradation due to the sheer size and scale of its effects. There are ubiquitous signs that
the human population is now impacting the global environment, thus threatening our life-support systems.

Human society worldwide has continued, during the past decade, on a path that is clearly not sustainable.
By the year 2050, fewer resources (than we are now relying on) will have to support nearly 9 billion
people, each requiring food, clothing, shelter and modern amenities of life. As rapidly developing nations
with large populations increase their use of resources, at some point this demand will simply exceed the
earth's resources, with drastic consequences for human life and the environment on the planet.

Civil engineers are faced with an increasingly complex and interrelated world; a world that is growing
rapidly in population, and becoming more urbanized and economically developed. Infrastructure develop-
ment can no longer be done in a microcosm on a project level ­ a more holistic inclusion of the complex
interactions of human society and the environment upon which it depends, is needed.

Sustainable Development can be taken to mean development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the needs of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainability is thus a social
concept (inter-generational), an environmental concept (conservation and protection), and an economic
concept (living on the earth's interest). From this perspective arises the "Triple Bottom Line" ­ social,
environmental and economic criteria for decision making. These criteria, coupled with consideration of the
full life cycle of the Civil Engineering projects embarked upon, represents the way forward for Civil
Engineering.

The CSCE adopted its first Guidelines for Civil Engineering Practice, Our Commitment to a Sustainable
Future in 1993. These guidelines were the Society's first attempt to establish sustainability concepts
within Canadian Civil Engineering practice in a manner consistent with the report of the Bruntland
Commission and other relevant forums. The CSCE's 1993 guidelines were instrumental in helping to
promote national and international progress in the field. For example, the China Civil Engineering Society
used the CSCE's guidelines as a model for their own set of protocols. Recently, the World Engineers
Convention was held in Shanghai (WFEO 2004) and resulted in the Shanghai Declaration on sustainable
development in engineering. The CSCE has recently signed an international protocol for "Engineering a
Sustainable Future for the Planet" (July 2006) with the American Society of Civil Engineers and the
Institution of Civil Engineers (UK) - a major commitment to sustainability on the part of Civil Engineering.

As more is learned about the vulnerability of the environment and the challenges of development, the
need to update the CSCE's Sustainable Development guidelines became apparent. Important new issues
have emerged, such as climate change, preservation and enhancement of the environment, human health
effects, loss of biodiversity, and the consequences of fossil fuel shortages in the future. The civil
engineer's role in guiding the development process towards sustainability is now more important than
ever.

2. NEWLY EMERGENT ISSUES

Since the CSCE's 1993 guidelines were prepared, several sustainable development issues that affect Civil
Engineering practices have gained prominence:

    ·   climate change: its potential impacts upon civil infrastructure; changes in extreme
        hydrological and meteorological events; and the growing efforts to reduce greenhouse
        gas emissions, as well as adaptation requirements;
    ·   peak oil: depleting oil and natural gas reserves with potentially very serious reper-
        cussions unless major shifts in societal priorities and policies are implemented; these
        include energy conservation and efficiency, alternative renewable sources, and strategies
        to reduce waste;
    ·   sustainable transportation: renewed emphasis on pedestrian amenities; mass transit;
        and energy conservation in transportation systems;


CSCE-SD Guidelines_22Jan07.doc                       2
    ·   environmental restoration: reconstruction of natural features, and fish habitat in rivers
        and streams; the control of sediment runoff; the removal of dams and tidal barriers, and
        cleanup and/or redevelopment of contaminated sites;
    ·   ecosystem disruption: loss of biodiversity; genetically modified products; and modified
        environmental vectors that may indirectly impact Civil Engineering;
    ·   ethics & equity: transparency and equity in providing basic human services to
        disadvantaged people; contributing to poverty reduction, human health and public
        welfare; and,
    ·   infrastructure operations & maintenance: infrastructure must be operated and
        maintained as effectively and efficiently as possible if the intended service benefits are to
        be obtained.

The concepts of sustainability should guide the civil engineer: to recognize the full life cycle of a project or
system; to ensure follow-up by the designer during the operational phase of works; to use performance
indicators in post-implementation monitoring of projects; and to balance the environment, social and
economic objectives over the entire life of the project ­ the "Triple Bottom Line" ­ in infrastructure
development.

Globally, there is the need to ensure civil infrastructure contributes to poverty alleviation, protects human
health and ecosystem integrity, and offers the widest possible access to basic human services.
Transparency, social equity and fairness must all be factored into civil projects.

Throughout all of these changes, the role of public participation in project planning and environmental
assessment has been increasing. Civil engineers must learn to communicate the importance, function and
impacts of civil infrastructure in daily life, and in sustainability terms, in order to assume a greater
leadership role.

The CSCE Guidelines for Civil Engineering Practice ­ "Entrusted to Our Care" is the Society's effort
to promulgate these concepts to members of the Civil Engineering profession, to other professions, to all
levels of government and to the public. Sustainable development is now being incorporated into university
curricula in Civil Engineering, and more opportunities for professional development with respect to
sustainable development are being provided. The practising civil engineer must be made aware of the
CSCE's guidelines and the importance of implementing them in professional practice.

2.1. UNCED and Agenda 21

These important international initiatives established sustainable development as an urgent operating need
for all agencies.

The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro,
resulted in the adoption of three key documents: (1) Agenda 21, a program to guide national and
international environmental and development efforts into the 21st century; (2) the Rio Declaration, a
statement of principles regarding the environment and development, and (3) a statement of principles for
the conservation and sustainable use of forests and a convention to combat desertification. The United
Nations has now established a Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) to monitor implemen-
tation of Agenda 21 recommendations. Further implementation of Agenda 21 and the commitments to the
Rio principles, were strongly reaffirmed at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in
Johannesburg, South Africa in September 2002.

A Framework Convention on Climate Change culminated in an agreement that received more than 150
head of state signatures at UNCED in June 1992; the convention entered into force in 1994. The climate
change convention places an obligation upon industrialized countries to develop action plans to limit
emissions of greenhouse gases and enhance forests and other greenhouse gas sinks. The First
Conference of the Parties to review the climate change convention was held in Berlin, Germany, in 1995,
and the 11th in Montreal in December 2005.




CSCE-SD Guidelines_22Jan07.doc                         3
2.2. Climate Change

While there are uncertainties over the magnitude of climate change, scientific evidence is growing that
global warming is occurring and is expected to continue during the 21st century. Climate change can
affect both our natural and built environments, and challenge our ability as civil engineers to design and
construct infrastructure that can protect people from harm and maintain acceptable standards of economic
well-being. To respond to these challenges, proactive efforts are needed to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions (mitigation) and to incorporate the effects of climate change on infrastructure design and the
natural environment (adaptation).

2.3. Transportation

To a nation as large as Canada, transportation is an important issue. Throughout much of the 20th
century, the major focus was on private motorized vehicles dependent on fossil fuels and a complex array
of roads and highways for personal, commercial and industrial transportation. It is evident that the impacts
of modern transportation in terms of urban sprawl, inefficient use of energy, high air pollution levels and
greenhouse gas emissions, and an unacceptably large ecological footprint, are not sustainable. For
example, the transportation sector accounts for about one quarter of Canada's greenhouse gas emissions
and is a major contributor to smog in urban areas. A shift to sustainable forms of transportation is timely
and essential. Civil engineers play such a major role in the planning, design, construction and operation of
transportation systems that leadership must come from the Civil Engineering profession.

2.4. Environmental Restoration

During the 1990s, large development projects have been questioned and further efforts were directed at
not only remediation of contaminated sites but also restoration of heavily damaged environments. For
example, systematic approaches to remediate contaminated sites were introduced in 1980s with the
establishment of the Superfund in the USA; and elsewhere the World Commission on Dams stated that,
despite significant benefits to humankind from dams and reservoirs, in too many cases the price paid to
secure those benefits in social and environmental terms has been too high (and, more importantly, could
have been avoided). Civil engineers must become increasingly engaged with the restoration of natural
habitat in conjunction with civil infrastructure projects.

2.5. Equity and Ethics

The welfare of the world's population can be improved, and a better quality of life achieved, through
sustainable Civil Engineering projects that help eliminate poverty, provide basic services, protect human
health, and contribute to equitable economic development among the world's poor. Lack of transparency
reduces the effectiveness of costly development projects. The CSCE, in cooperation with several other
engineering societies, has begun to work on a set of principles of professional conduct that will help
improve practices in the engineering and construction industry. Openness and transparency in the
procurement and delivery of global engineering and construction services, efficiently allocated for their
intended purpose, will result in additional financial resources being available for poverty reduction and
optimizing societal benefits by employing the "Triple Bottom Line" approach.

2.6. Infrastructure Operations and Maintenance

Civil engineers need to be involved with the operational phases of their works, especially with buildings,
structures, water supply and wastewater treatment works. The design process cannot be divorced from
operations and maintenance aspects of project implementation, yet this is often the case. Civil engineers
should be advocating that contractual arrangements for the design of infrastructure include an obligation to
evaluate subsequent operations. The first principle of sustainable development should be that existing
infrastructure must be operated and maintained as efficiently and effectively as possible, before under-
taking new projects relying on non-renewable resources, high energy use, and generating additional
waste.




CSCE-SD Guidelines_22Jan07.doc                       4
3. THE CSCE GUIDELINES FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING PRACTICE

3.1. Vision/Mission/Values.

Civil Engineering offers needed solutions to global society and the environment in an increasingly
populated and technology-dependant world. There is no going back! Civil engineers can participate fully in
the development process, becoming more aware of social, health, environmental and economic issues,
and better advocating for sustainable development in the true sense of the word. Civil Engineering is in a
position to make a tremendous difference. By exercising a leadership role, individual civil engineers can
help to solve the most challenging and threatening problems that have ever faced humankind. One of the
most important aspects of this role will be to continue to research and develop new technologies for
resource utilization, basic human services, energy conservation and waste minimization. Another
important aspect will be to apply sound management thinking to develop sustainable projects that are
appropriate to community needs. This is truly the challenge of our generation.

3.2. Natural Environment.

The CSCE recognizes the imperative of protection of the environment, minimization of the environmental
impacts of Civil Engineering works, minimization of waste and efficient energy use. The need is not simply
for protection of the environment, but its enhancement through measures that improve the functioning of
ecosystems and life-support systems on which we all depend.

The civil engineer should endeavour to:

    ·   Recognize that the interdependence and diversity of our natural ecosystems form the
        very basis of our continued existence;
    ·   Recognize the finite capacity of the environment to assimilate changes due to human
        activities, and incorporate consideration of adaptive capacity into project planning and
        design;
    ·   Identify and act to minimize potential environmental effects of engineering activities;
    ·   Study thoroughly the environment that will be affected, assess all the impacts that may
        arise, and select the best alternative for a sustainable project;
    ·   Include consideration of environmental effects in all phases of planning and
        implementation of engineering activities;
    ·   Promote a clear understanding of the actions required in Civil Engineering practice to
        sustain and restore the natural environment; and,
    ·   Encourage the enhancement, not simply the protection, of the environment.

3.3. Financial and Economic Sustainability.

The CSCE recognizes the need for financial and economic sustainability in the provision of infrastructure.
This would include considering the true life cycle costs, both direct and indirect, such as the increased cost
of water treatment required (direct) when water quality buffers such as wetlands are destroyed, and the
loss of habitat for waterfowl and aquatic species (indirect). Other important considerations are operations
and maintenance, repair and rehabilitation costs, demolition and disposal costs, as well as the appropriate
level of service required taking into account the current level of economic development and the ability of
users and consumers to pay. The closing of the gap between rich and poor has been identified by
international aid organizations as integral to economic sustainability.

The civil engineer should endeavour to:

    ·   Adopt a life cycle approach to project financing and implementation in which the
        construction, operation and maintenance, demolition and disposal costs are all
        adequately considered;


CSCE-SD Guidelines_22Jan07.doc                        5
    ·   Include costs and benefits related to environmental quality in economic evaluations of
        engineering activities;
    ·   Recognize all actual, potential or perceived conflicts of interest in relation to engineering
        activities, and ensure clarity and transparency in dealing with them;
    ·   Recognize that compromising environmental quality or standards in Civil Engineering
        activities is an inappropriate means of reducing cost, and may only achieve short-term
        gains at the expense of long-term sustainability and human welfare;
    ·   Disclose environmental implications and uncertainties, and the entirety of external costs
        of Civil Engineering activities, taking into account the often inadequate and uncertain
        nature of environmental data;
    ·   Promote economic approaches that recognize natural resources and the environment as
        capital assets; and,
    ·   Consider the cost of environmental protection for the entire project life.

3.4. Green Construction.

The CSCE endorses "Green Construction" - construction that achieves the beneficial objectives of
engineering work with the lowest possible consumption of raw materials and energy, both during and after
construction. Every decision should aim to minimize environmental burdens under five global
consequences: resource depletion, energy depletion, climate change, biodiversity, and human health.
Best practices for eco-efficiency, such as increased energy/water efficiency, the minimization of waste and
resource consumption, the employment of "clean" technologies should be employed. The use of
performance based standards and guidelines identifying the outcome required as opposed to a
prescriptive path that must be followed enables designers to achieve improved end results.

The civil engineer should endeavour to:

    ·   Promote the wise use of non-renewable resources, waste minimization and recycling in
        engineering activities and the development of alternatives to the use of non-renewable
        resources;
    ·   Select materials and systems with low embodied energy and easy reuse;
    ·   Promote the principles of conservation and energy efficiency;
    ·   Rigorously examine the basic functions and purposes behind a project to recognize
        options and alternatives that will increase sustainability;
    ·   Identify appropriate technology for sustainable development, recognizing that may mean
        low-tech solutions;
    ·   Choose a built form and orientation that contribute to environmental economies and
        future adaptability, flexibility of use and reuse;
    ·   Select construction methods that minimize the effects of construction and demolition in
        terms of land take, waste and pollution;
    ·   Aim to reduce natural, accidental and wilful hazards;
    ·   Consider individual and cumulative social, economic and environmental impacts (the
        Triple Bottom Line) including long-term and indirect impacts; and,
    ·   Adopt practices, policies and design goals that focus on efficiency, conservation of
        materials and energy, and waste minimization.

3.5. Human Resources.

The CSCE recognizes the need for continuing education and professional development of human
resources as integral to sustainable development. Civil Engineering education and learned societies like
the CSCE must promote the requirement for engineers to educate themselves on environmental issues
and the full consequences of development actions, stay aware of the issues, and practice continuous

CSCE-SD Guidelines_22Jan07.doc                        6
improvement. Educational programs must be strengthened and broadened to foster the capacity for the
creation of Civil Engineering solutions required to deal with the complexity of sustainable development.
Internationally, the need for capacity building in development organizations and at the community level is
also acknowledged.

The civil engineer should endeavour to:

    ·   Keep informed about environmental trends and issues;
    ·   Promote a clear understanding of the actions required in Civil Engineering practice to
        sustain and restore the natural environment;
    ·   Support and participate in environmental education and public consultation activities;
    ·   Promote continuing improvement in the sustainability of design, construction and
        maintenance of the built and natural environments;
    ·   Be aware of the potential impacts of professional activities on the environment, and
        maintain a working knowledge of environmental issues and solutions; and,
    ·   Not rely on ignorance of environmental problems to justify activities that may cause
        significant damage to the environment.

3.6. Social, Regulatory, and Health Concerns.

The CSCE recognizes the need to go beyond the minimum regulatory requirements; the importance of
basic human services and poverty reduction through rule of law, transparency, and accountability in Civil
Engineering activities is paramount. The CSCE advocates voluntary compliance as preferable to
legislation, such as through performance based standards and guidelines. The CSCE recognizes that
equity and meeting basic human needs is fundamental to sustainability and the practice of Civil
Engineering, and that no generation should increase its wealth to the detriment of others.

The civil engineer should endeavour to:

    ·   Meet basic human needs with a focus on social equity;
    ·   Recognize the rights of future generations;
    ·   Report conditions affecting public safety and the environment;
    ·   Comply with legislation and consider additional environmental protection where feasible;
        and,
    ·   Consider evidence of cumulative, persistent and synergistic effects where these may not
        be addressed in legislation.

3.7. Ethics.

The CSCE recognizes that the public welfare is the prime responsibility of the civil engineer. This
inherently includes the well-being of the environment. As such, the civil engineer should advocate for the
principles of sustainable development in both their work and in their workplace, and urge clients and
employers to incorporate environmental objectives, conservation and energy efficiency into design criteria,
in order to prevent or minimize the adverse environmental effects of engineering activities.

The civil engineer should endeavour to:

    ·   Adopt practices that contribute to the goal of sustainable development;
    ·   Suggest alternatives to clients, if the proposed engineering activity is likely to create
        unavoidable environmental risks;
    ·   Urge clients to incorporate the monitoring of environmental changes into projects, and to
        adjust operations as a result of that monitoring;


CSCE-SD Guidelines_22Jan07.doc                        7
    ·   Provide information to clients, employers, the public and government about ways of
        improving the sustainability of Civil Engineering solutions;
    ·   Decline to associate with engineering activities if the client or employer is unwilling to
        support adequate efforts to evaluate and/or mitigate environmental problems;
    ·   Employ the precautionary principle ­ always err on the side of caution with respect to
        environmental consequences, since the response of biological systems to human
        activities is frequently difficult to predict;
    ·   Provide leadership in the development of codes of practice for sustainable development
        within the workplace;
    ·   Reaffirm their commitment to regard the physical, economic and environmental well being
        of the public as the prime responsibility of their work; and,
    ·   Decline to be associated with engineering activities if the client or employer is unwilling to
        comply with environmental requirements.


3.8. Participation.

The CSCE recognizes the interdisciplinary nature of the issues and therefore the need for participation, by
government, public agencies, institutions and societies, the public, employees, and other professionals.
Civil engineers have a role as leaders to set an example and support actions leading to sustainable
development.

The civil engineer should endeavour to:

    ·   Recognize that the expertise required for a specific engineering activity may not be
        sufficient for judging the environmental implications of that activity;
    ·   Involve specialists in environmental engineering and other professions in determining the
        environmental implications of engineering activities;
    ·   Recognize individual limitations in assessing environmental effects, and consider other
        opinions, professional and otherwise;
    ·   Recognize the rights of the community to be involved in project formulation and
        development, and actively encourage such involvement;
    ·   Maintain dialogue about sustainable development with other professions, with the public,
        and with environmental groups;
    ·   Ensure active community participation in engineering decisions/discussions;
    ·   Assist and advise other engineers, where necessary, in the application and use of the
        principles of sustainable development set out in this document;
    ·   Work to harmonize the activities of public and private sectors, non-governmental and
        intergovernmental organizations; and,
    ·   Support initiatives of other recognized professionals to implement the principles of
        sustainable development.

3.9. Implementation.

The CSCE recognizes the importance of operations and maintenance in infrastructure projects, and the
monitoring, reporting, and periodic evaluation and review of civil projects and programs leading to
continuous improvement.

The civil engineer should endeavour to:

    ·   Establish operational goals and targets aimed at energy and resource conservation,
        minimization of waste, protection of surface and ground water, and the abatement of air
        emissions;

CSCE-SD Guidelines_22Jan07.doc                        8
    ·   Promote and follow performance based standards and guidelines;
    ·   Incorporate appropriate monitoring of environmental change into all operations and
        processes, and adjust the systems based on the results;
    ·   Ensure close liaison between the design and operational phases of projects; and,
    ·   Advocate for sustainable funding for O&M during the entire life cycle of each project.

4. CONCLUDING REMARKS

It is clear that in recent years, additional clarity has evolved in terms of sustainability as a concept and how
it relates to institutional and societal values, and that significant progress has occurred in translating these
goals into at least short-term programming for many agencies, and sometimes long-term programs as
well.

Viewed both globally and locally, humanity is very much technology dependent. New and more innovative
technologies must play a key role in preserving and enhancing the environment, including the human
environment ­ technologies based on research and development, alternative design and service
standards, and large scale behavioural and social changes.

The role and benefits of Civil Engineering must be communicated effectively to the public, other
stakeholders, regulatory agencies, infrastructure owners and developers, and politicians so that the
serious, urgent and growing problems faced by the world's burgeoning population can be effectively
addressed.

Civil Engineering will continue to be a vital profession ­ a profession that supports food production, health
and security, basic human services (water, wastewater, energy, transportation), and environmental
protection and enhancement for the burgeoning global population that will increase markedly under
growing economic and social stimuli. Therefore, civil engineers need to strive to incorporate sustainability
in all aspects of their work if humankind is to adapt and survive into the next millennium.

Anthropologist Margaret Meade once noted, "Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed
citizens can change the world". Civil engineers, through the practice of their profession, can join that group
and act as part of these necessary agents of change.

The CSCE's Guidelines for Sustainable Development will hopefully play an important role in this process.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The views expressed are those of the authors. Appreciation is expressed to those who attended the
presentation of these guidelines at the Sustainable Development session at the 2006 Annual Conference
in Calgary. Sponsorship of research by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council
(NSERC) is gratefully acknowledged.




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